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Ancient History Alexander (ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ, from the Greek words ΑΛΕΞΩ (protect) +ΑΝΔΡΑΣ (men) = protector of men), son of Philip, King of Macedonia was undoubtedly one of the most significant historical figures. Plutarch, the ancient Greek historian, wrote that Alexander’s mother had an ominous dream on her wedding night where she was in the middle of a terrible storm. A thunder bolt hit her belly and the flames that erupted from it covered the world. Not surprisingly, her offspring Alexander, became that stormy military commander who within a decade conquered almost all of the then known world. As part of his conquests he promoted civilization by building cities and spreading the Greek language and way of life. Some historians describe his conquests as an “armed exploration”. For these reasons history has rightly named him “Alexander the Great”. The Hellenic tribe of Dorians, to which the Macedonians ethnologically belonged, appeared in the area called Macedonia around 1300 BC. Some Dorians moved south, through Thessaly towards Peloponnese while others moved into the upper course of the Aliakmon river and settled in the area that was known in ancient times as “Upper Macedonia” (present day Western Greek Macedonia). Specifically, they settled in “Elimiotis” (present day Kozani), “Orestis” (present day Kastoria) and “Lyncestis” (present day Florina). The spread of these Dorians, who according to ancient historians are known as Macedonians (from the ancient Doric word "ΜΑΚΟΣ” (length) and "ΜΑΚΟΔΑΝΟΣ" (tall), continued until 700 BC into the valley of Bottiaea (present day Emathia), to the plain of Pieria, Mt. Olympus and Peneios river. Later, during the reign of King Alexander I, Macedonia included under its authority the eastern areas of Krestonia, Bisaltia and Mygdonia up to Strymon River. During the reign of Philip II it spread north and included Pelagonia and Paeonia and from the east included almost all of Thrace up to the Black Sea. The first capital of Macedonia was the city of Aegae, located at present day Vergina. The capital city was transferred to Pella, the birthplace of Alexander (northwest of present day Thessaloniki), by the intellectual King of Macedonia Archelaus in the middle of the 5th century BC. Alexander’s father was son of Amyntas, King of Macedonia Philip II. He belonged to the Family of Argeadae or Temenidae which were considered to be descendents of Hercules. As a young prince, Philip lived as a hostage of the Thebans under the great military reformer Epameinondas, who had invented the phalanx, (heavily armedinfantry). In 360 BC, when Philip returned to Macedonia and became King, he proceeded to reorganise the army. He created the phalanx of pezetaeroi, consisted of 16 paralleled armed lines with a six-metre long spear, the “sarisa”. The Macedonian phalanx with the “sarisa” bearers formed a square, impenetrable wall (see picture top right). Apart from being a military reformer, Philip was also an outstanding diplomat. He managed to unite all Greeks under his authority (except the Lacedaemonians - Spartans) for a common expedition against the Persians who had earlier attacked Greece and destroyed Athens during the Persian Wars (490-479 BC). He married seven women, most of them for diplomatic reasons. Amongst them was Olympias, mother of Alexander. He was murdered in 336 BC at the age of 47 by his bodyguard Pausanias, on the wedding day of his daughter Cleopatra to Alexander, the King of Epeirotans.
Alexander’s mother was Olympias, daughter of Neoptolemus, King of Molossoi (Epeirotans) who were also Dorians. As Plutarch tells us, she met Philip in Samothrace, the religious centre of the Northern Greeks. Tradition has it that her family were descendants of the most brilliant hero of the Trojan war, Achilles. It is due to his mother that Alexanderworshiped this outstanding hero and used to sleep with Homer’s Iliad under his pillow. The marriage between Philip and Olympias took place in 357 BC. Olympias was a woman of strong character and had a close relationship with her son. She influenced him very much until his death and is said to have been the reason for Alexander’s chivalrous behaviour towards foreign queens, mothers, wives and daughters of his enemies, behaviour completely different from the customs of that time. Sometimes Alexander would feel pressured from the demanding love of his mother. “Very heavy is the rent I pay for the nine months my mother had me in her belly,” he used to say. Some implicate her in the murder of Philip II because he deserted her to marry another woman. After the death of Alexander it is said that she took steps to murder her son’s half brother, Arridaeus, in order for her grandson Alexander IIII, son of Alexander and Roxane, to become King. In 316 BC she was arrested by Cassander, later king and husband of Alexander’s half sister Thessaloniki, and put to death. Alexander III was born in Pella on July 22, 356 BC, the year of the 106th Olympiad. Ancient historians say that on the same day that Alexander saw the daylight, the Temple of Artemis at the Ionian Ephesus (Asia Minor), one of the Seven Wonders of the World, was set on fire by Herostratus just so his name would stay in history. The legend says that Artemis could not save her home because she was standing by the birth of the man who would free Ionia. After his death, the Arabs sought an explanation for the birth of Alexander from the stars. The night of July 22, the night that he was born, Earth was coming out of the constellation of Cancer and was entering the constellation of Leo. The joining of these two constellations marked the fate of this insuperable in bravery, and at the same time, spiritual king. It is alleged that the Jews heard about him in a prophecy by Daniel (200 years before his birth).
Alexander from a very young age showed that he was fearless and daring. One day Philip, who adored horses as his name implies (OÅNEÅLEÅNEÅL<ETH><ETH>IÅNOÅL from the Greek words ÖÉËÏÓ (friend) + EÅL<ETH><ETH>IÅNOÅL (horse) = he who adores horses), bought a young black Thessalian horse, but none of Philip’s experienced horse riders could tame. Alexander, who was only 14 at the time, noticed that the young horse was afraid of its shadow. He then turned it towards the sun and quickly mounted him. Then his proud father told him: “O my son, seek out a kingdom worthy of thyself, for Macedonia is too little for thee” and gave him the horse. Alexander named it Boucephalas (ÂÏÕÊÅÖÁËÁÓ from the Greek words ÂÏÕÓ (ox) + ÊÅÖÁËÇ (head) = ox head) because of its small head. This horse took him in to the depths of India where it died from old age. Alexander founded a city there and named it after his beloved horse (Boucephaleia). However, Alexander’s character had another side. According to Plutarch, when his father decided to leave Olympias and marry another This episode caused Alexander to leave Macedonia and return after a long time with the mediation of his father’s Corinthian friend, Demaratus. Apart from his mother, his teachers also played an important role in shaping his character. First was the Epeirotan Leonidas, a relative of Olympias. He was strict in manners and taught Alexander self-discipline. He took him away from the habits of the Macedonian court of noisy banquets and taught him self-control. Leonidas drove him to superior interests and actions and taught him reading, writing, music, arithmetic, horse ridding, archery and javelin. Another teacher, from Western Greece, Lysimachus, had created a kind of educational “game” that charmed young Alexander. According to this “game” Alexander was Achilles, his father Philip was Peleas (Achilles’ father) and Lysimachus himself was Phoenix (Achilles’ wise advisor). This “game” demanded Alexander to become like Achilles. He had to be just as brave and glorious as him. And eventually, Alexander identified himself with the great hero. Apart from Homer’s Iliad he also read lyrical poetry and drama. A music teacher from Lemnos, Leukippus, also taught him how to play the lyre and sing so well that when his father heard him play and sing he became concerned. At a formal dinner after a victory, the King, wanting to thank his Generals, called the prince and asked him to play the lyre. Alexander played and sang so well that his Generals were so charmed by the power of his skills even though he was still a child. Philip, almost upset (as he never imagined his heir to become an artist) told him: “Aren’t you ashamed to play so well?”. Alexander, very serious and calm replied: “No. I am proud of excellence, just as I am proud of your great achievements my King”. And indeed he was proud of Philip’s victories but often complained to his young friends saying: “My father will go ahead of me in everything, and will leave nothing great for me to do”. Philip, entrusted his 14 year old son’s education to his friend and great philosopher Aristotle. Alexander, together with other sons of distinguished families of Macedonia, who later become his Hetaeroi, (his Generals during the great expedition in the East), heard the teachings of Aristotle at majestic Mieza, near present day Naoussa. Aristotle, apart from oratory, ethics and science initiated the young student in poetry. He also taught him moderation, bravery, virtue and the value of true friendship. It is obvious that the Aristotelian teachings, made a deep impact on Alexander. However, despite Aristotle’s teachings, he was prone to violence. For example, during an explosion of anger he penetrated and killed with his sword Cleitus, his saviour in the battle of Granicus. Immediately, realizing his mistake, he tried to kill himself. So there was a continuous battle inside him to prevail over his passions and be a model of virtue, as Aristotle’s teachings demanded. Finally, Plutarch in order to explain Alexander’s charisma to stand out from the others due to his bravery, wisdom and sharp mind, said that his whole body seemed to radiate a strange light. It seems that, this mystical light that gave him this shine was nothing else but the sparkling spirit and his internal strength being reflected on his face. Naturally, legend has connected all this with his divine descent.
In 334 BC Alexander went to Corinth where the Koinon (League) of the Hellenes (a group of representatives of all Hellenic cities except Sparta) proclaimed him as commander of all the Greeks, for the expedition against the Persians. There he was visited by philosophers except for Diogenis the Cynical. This philosopher despised any worldly authority, glory and wealth, that is, whatever expressed the social and philosophical establishment at that time. As it is also known he lived in a large earthen jar. Alexander found out that Diogenis was in Corinth and asked to visit They say that as they were leaving Alexander murmured and said: “I swear to the Gods, if I wasn’t Alexander, I would have wanted to be Diogenis”. This was an indirect recognition of the similarities between the two people. They both had the same spiritual obstinacy.
The war against the Persians As mentioned, when Alexander became king, he went to Corinth and renewed the trust and command of the Greek cities for war against the Persians. In spring of 334 BC, as commander of all the Greeks and at the age of 22, he began from Pella, with 30,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalrymen to attack the all-powerful, at the time, Persia. In Macedonia, he left behind, as a Commissioner, General Antipater. He passed through Thrace, Hellespont, and upon reaching Asia Minor went to Troy (Ilion) were he made a sacrifice to the Goddess Athena. He placed a wreath on the tomb of his favourite hero and ancestor from his mother’s side, Achilles. According to legend, Alexander took with him the shield and the sword of Achilles. The battle at Granicus River (334 BC)
The first battle with the Persians was at Granicus river. The Persian troops had gathered on one side of the river to repel the Greeks as they would come out of the river and prevent Alexander from moving to the interior of Asia. Alexander, on horseback, rushed first in the river together with his cavalrymen. Such was the force of the Macedonian cavalrymen that they turned the Persians back. In this battle Alexander was almost killed but was saved by a General and friend of his, Cleitus. Spithridates, a Persian officer had lifted his sword ready to take it down on Alexander’s neck who always fought without a helmet. Cleitus who was next to him, with one quick movement of his sword, cut the Persian’s hand just in time. From the Persian spoils Alexander sent 300 panoplies to Athens, the city which he regarded as the centre of Hellenism, as an offering to the Parthenon (Temple of the Goddess Athena) with these words: “ÁËÅÎÁÍÄÑÏÓ OÅNEÅLEÅNEÅL<ETH><ETH>IÅNO ÊÁÉ ÏÉ ÅËËÇÍÅÓ, <ETH>EÅNCIÅL ËÁÊÅÄÁÉÌÏÍÉÙÍ, AÅL<ETH>IÅN
With the victory at Granicus river, Alexander became Ruler of Asia Minor. The Ionian (Greek) cities received him as a liberator and other cities surrendered without resistance. Those cities that resisted were defeated. When he reached the city of Gordion in Phrygia they showed him the well-known “Gordian Knot”. An old oracle had said that he who untied the knot would become Chief of Asia. Alexander examined carefully the knot and when he realized that it had no ends he took out his sword and with one decisive movement he cut it. He wanted to show that he would become Chief of Asia by the might of his sword. In the meantime, the King of Persia, Darius III decided to confront himself the Macedonian King. With a very big army, some say up to 600,000, but slow moving due to its size, with his family and his treasures, proceeded to confront Alexander. Indeed, the second greatest battle took place at the narrow plain at the city of Issus. The powerful and fast moving Macedonian phalanx attacked the center of the array of the enemy and broke through it. Alexander himself, with his Hetaeroi attacked towards Darius’ chariot. He had completely demolished the left side of the Persian array and wanted to fight with the great King. Darius terrified turned back, while Alexander chose to surround Darius’ tough mercenaries who panicked and abandoned the battlefield in disarray. Darius’ family and treasures fell to the hands of the Greeks and his great army was disbanded. The manner in which Alexander behaved towards the captured royal family of Persia was exemplary. The conquering of Phoenicia
After the great victory at Issus, Alexander did not pursue Darius but moved south towards Phoenicia and subjected the Phoenician cities. Tyre, a city built on an island, was conquered after a seven-month siege. Historian Arrianus, says that during this siege, Alexander built impenetrable ships (Katafrakta) that could go under sea level. Were these the first submarines? A few days later, Alexander’s first wife, the Persian Barsine, had his first son which he named Hercules. Did he give his son this name to honour his hero ancestor, or to make him a Panhellenic or even a universal symbol as Hercules was? After he conquered Palestine he proceeded to Egypt. The Egyptians, who suffered from the Persian sovereignty, received Alexander as their liberator and proclaimed him as a Pharaoh. Alexander respected their religion, traditions and their In Egypt, Alexander wanted to visit the famous oracle of Zeus Ammon, at the oasis of Siwah in the Libyan desert. There, the chief Priest called Alexander “<ETH>AÅLEÅL ÄÉÏÓ” (son of Zeus). Zeus Ammon was depicted by the Egyptians with a ram’s head. This is why, later, they issued coins illustrating Alexander with horns. The battle of Gaugamela (331 BC) From Egypt, Alexander proceeded to Mesopotamia. There, Darius had gathered a new large army reinforced with 200 sickle bearing chariots and war elephants. They say that this time Darius’ army exceeded one million soldiers. Alexander’s experienced General, Parmenion, advised him to attack during the night and surprise the Persians. “I do not steal victory” he replied. He wanted to win fighting face to face in daylight and not by trapping them. So, at the plain of Gaugamela, near the city of Arbela, there was a terrible battle during which the unbeatable Macedonian phalanx broke through the centre of the enemy’s array, while Alexander, head of the cavalry, spread panic through the Persian army. The clash between the Macedonian Hetaeroi (cavalrymen) and the Persian cavalry, which was consisted of Persians and Indians, was deadly. More than sixty bodyguards of Alexander were killed while his Generals Hephaestion and Coenus were wounded. In the meanwhile, the Persian army was destroyed and retreated while Darius with difficulty managed to escape on horseback, abandoning his heavy chariot. This glorious victory at Gaugamela opened for Alexander the road to the interior of Persia. All large cities one after the other surrendered without resistance So, in a period of seven years Alexander had conquered the Persian state and was proclaimed King of Persians. At the most remote part of the boundless Persian state he founded a new city, Alexandria Eschate (Alexandria the Farthest) and married the daughter of thePersian leader Oxyartes, the beautiful princess Roxane. Alexander in India (327 BC) After the conquering of the boundless Persian state Alexander did not rest on his glory. His great ambition and his innate curiosity drove him further. He thought of also becoming Ruler of the Indians, which according to the geography of the time was the end of the world. After that there was the great Ocean. So, at the beginning of 327 BC he began his new expedition in India. And there, he only knew victories. He passed the Indus River and reached the Hydaspes, (present day Jhelum) which was an affluent of the Indus river. There he waged a deadly battle against the army of Porus, the powerful king of that region. They say that when Porus heard of Alexander’s advancement towards his state he first sent him an arrogant letter to frighten him: “Porus, the Great King of India, who shines like a God, to King Alexander. I heard that you killed King Darius and you grew proud, and now because of your silliness you come to me to destroy yourself. You know very well that when I get upset the whole world is terrified ... As I understand you are sick of your life and this is why you come. If you want me to forgive you, you must send me taxes from all the people that you subjected and go back to Macedonia and reign. If you do not, you will not escape from my hands, neither Macedonia nor any other place will hide you because I have decided to come after you and destroy you completely”. Alexander, intrepid, turned back the numerous Indian soldiers and took Porus prisoner. When Alexander asked him how he wanted to be treated Porus replied with one word: “Royally”. And he did. Alexander respected his state also, and its traditions and allowed Porus to govern it as he knew how. Whilst in India, Alexander’s unique horse, Boucephalas, died of old age. The King, who had so much loved his companion in all battles, built, in his memory, a new city near the Hydaspes river, and named it Boucephaleia. Then he continued advancing up to the Hyphasis river, which was another affluent of the Indus river. There, his men tired and having suffered hardships from the long courses and the wars for almost ten years, denied proceeding further. Alexander was forced to tame his unrelenting ambition and gave orders for their return. Upon hearing these news his soldiers rejoiced with great excitement. Before they departed, at the banks of the Hyphasis River, they erected twelve altars to honour the twelve Gods of Olympus. There, Alexander also erected a well-crafted bronze column and with three words he spoke of the end of a glorious expedition: «ÁËÅÎÁÍÄÑÏÓ ÅÍÔÁÕÈÁ ÅÓÔÇ» (Alexander stopped here). And in 326 BC they took the road back. The return (326 BC) Alexander had built about 2,000 ships from the Indian forests. He embarked, with part of his army, on the ships and descended the Hydaspes river while the rest of his army followed walking by the riverbank. When he reached the seashores of the Indian Ocean he decided to return to Persia through the mainland. Nearchus, his friend and General from Amphipolis, also known as The Cretan because of his origin, undertook to transfer with the ships a large part of the army through the Indian Ocean. Taking scientists with him he had orders from Alexander to explore the seashores of the Indian Ocean, to sail through the Persian Gulf and to bring the ships to the mouth of the Euphrates River. Alexander’s course through the desert of Gedrossia lasted sixty days. Thirst, hunger, the unbearable heat, the sandstorms and illnesses put both man and horse through hardship. Many lost their lives on their way back to Persia. It is said that as they were returning, in the heat-wave of the desert, suffering from annihilating thirst, a soldier found some water, put it in a helmet and brought it to the King. The King asked if there was enough for everyone to drink and when the soldier told him that was all he found, he denied drinking it and poured it on the earth. In spring of 324 BC Alexander arrived in Susa (Persia) with his army. A few days later Nearchus sailed in and had a lot of magnificent new things to tell the King, from his sea exploration. Nearchus’ journey may well be characterized as the first sea expedition. He had recorded his experiences of the journey in a text entitled “ÔÁ ÁÌÖÉ ÔÙ <ETH>AÅãNEÅL<ETH>EÅNU`” (Whatever Happened During the Journey), the first “ship diary” in the world history of the navy. This diary constitutes written proof of the cultural and scientific significance of Alexander’s expedition. At Susa, Alexander instigated 10,000 marriages between Greek soldiers and Persian women. Amongst them were eighty important Generals of the Macedonian King. Alexander himself married the daughter of Darius, Stateira, his brotherly friend Hephaestion married the daughter of Artaxerxis III, Parysatis, while his most trusted The ecumenical spirit of this young King will take an official form later when they arrive at the city of Opis, about fifty kilometres north of present day Baghdad. There, Alexander organized a symposium in which about 10,000 Greek and Persian soldiers and officers participated. In a common sacred rite by Greek and Persian priests the co-existence of the two people was founded. As Arrianos says, Alexander for the first time spoke clearly of the dream of a brotherly mankind: “…he wished for prosperity and happiness, but above all he wished for harmony and the common participation in the governence of the two peoples”. After Opis, Alexander reached the city of Ecbatana where he offered sacrifices to the Gods and organized many festivities. There, amongst much happiness Alexander also experienced great sorrow with the death of his best friend Hephaestion for whom he mourned bitterly, just as Achilles did for his friend Patroklus in Homer’s Iliad. The End (323 BC)
Deeply saddened and exhausted, Alexander took the way to Babylon where he was thinking of making it the capital city of his state. There, Ambassadors from all Greek cities were waiting to crown him for his glorious victories and to declare their support. In return, Alexander gave them many of the statues and dedications that the Persians had taken from Greece during the Persian Wars. Nearchus, with his fleet also sailed into Babylon, through the Euphratis River. There, Alexander started planning new expeditions towards the north and the west, which he never carried out. He became ill with a fever and his exhausted body, from hardship, could not cope. He died within 12 days, after he silently saw one by one his fellow-fighters passing by his bed, in tears, for the final goodbye. It is said that one of his soldiers, Peukolaus, knelt by his side and said: “May the Gods take me, and leave you here, Alexander, near the Greeks who need you so much”. Unfortunately, on the 13th June 323 BC, before completing 13 years of his reign and just before turning 33, one of the most brilliant figures in world history surrendered his spirit. It is said that his body was transferred to the city that he had designed, Alexandria of Egypt, and was buried there with great honour. However, his grave has not as yet been found. Upon hearing of Alexander’s death, Darius’ mother, Sysigambis, who had survived her own son’s death, refused to eat for three days and died. Arrianos, amongst other things, concludes his work “Alexandrou Anavasis”, (The Ascent of Alexander) with the following words: “He was handsome, hard-working, quick in decision making, brave, honourable, extremely risky, with respect for divine things. He controlled his bodily pleasures…He was excellent in grasping that which had to be done when others could not even imagine it, and he precisely made the right conclusions by observing the phenomena. With rare expertise he could prepare an army, arm it and lead it …He was mostly intelligent… While he was mostly frugal with spending on his personal pleasures, he was generous in helping his fellow-people. And I, one of the old monarchs, know only of Alexander who would regret every time he would make a mistake...I believe that at the time of Alexander, there was no nation, no city, no single human being who had not heard of Alexander’s fame. And I don’t think that Alexander was born without divine will, he who stood out so much from all other people” Alexander’s achievements Alexander was not only a great conqueror who in a short period of time managed to become Ruler of Persia, Egypt and reach the Indus river. His plan was to unite the East and the West, to organize a vast state, in which the Greek language and culture would prevail while all citizens would have equal rights and duties. Amongst his achievements:
The successors (epigonoi)
Important Hellenistic centres in Egypt and Asia were:
Roman – Byzantine As we have already mentioned, until 31 BC all Hellenistic kingdoms fell to the hands of the Romans. The Roman Empire included, apart from the State of Alexander, almost all of Europe and North Africa, making the Mediterranean a "Roman Lake". Around 330 AD the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great transferred the Empire's capital to Byzantium, the ancient colony of the city Megara (a city located close to Athens). The new city was approximately in the center of the Empire, making its administration easier, and in a strategic and economically important position. Initially it was named New Rome and later, Constantinople, in honour of its founder. At the end of the 4th century AD, the Empire was divided into two states, the Western and the Eastern. During the 5th century AD, the Western state, due to invasions of foreign peoples such as the Goths and the Huns, (this period wasknown as the Great Migration of the Peoples), was disbanded and in its place the so-called germanic states were formed. On the other hand, the Eastern state, (which from the 4th century AD started transforming into a Hellenic state), survived and flourished for another 1,000 years until 1453 AD when it fell to the hands of the Ottomans. The transformation of the Eastern state, from a Roman to a Hellenic state, was due to the previous spread of the Greek language and civilization by Alexander the Great in this territory. This was the well known Byzantine Empire. In the meantime, the role of the ecumenical Greek language of that time, known as the Koine (Common), was instrumental to the spread of the new religion, Christianity. Macedonia reached its peak during this period (330-1453) having as its center Thassaloniki, the city founded by King Cassander (316 BC) and named after his wife who was also Alexander's sister. Thessaloniki is presently the second largest city of Greece and the largest harbour in Northern Greece. Thessaloniki, also gave an important Saint to Christianity, St. Demetrius who is also the patron Saint of the city. In the 9th century AD two other important men, Cyrilus and Methodius, also from Thessaloniki, spread Christianity to the Slavs of Europe and gave them their first alphabet known as Cyrillic. The Orthodox Church has declared them as Saints. Alexander the Great in Myth
The figure of Alexander appears throughout the centuries as one of the highest personifications of human strength and glory. This is why his mythical transformation started appearing in works soon after his death. But, even when he was alive, his achievements reached mythical proportions. This resulted in the creation of a fictional biography of Alexander, the so called “of Pseudokallisthenis”, of which its first form reaches up to the 3rd century AD. This text became very popular and has undergone many adaptations in prose and in verses, in learned and vernacular language during the Byzantine Period. Finally it resulted in the well known text entitled “Book of Alexander the Great” (Phyllada tou Megalexandrou). It was first printed in the 17th century, at the Greek printers in Venice, with the new title “The history of Alexander of Macedonia - The Life, the Wars and his Death”. Since then it has been printed in numerous publications in the Hellenic world where the name of Alexander still lives in many myths and folk traditions.
An example of this is the legend of the Gorgona (mermaid). In this legend the Gorgona, who is Alexander’s sister, would appear in front of sailors during a storm and ask of them: “Tell me sailor, is King Alexander alive?” And if the sailor replies, “Yes, my lady, he is alive and reigns” she happily goes away and calms the sea. But if the sailor tells her that he has died she becomes upset, makes the storm worse and sinks the ship. But the “History” of Alexander did not circulate only in the Hellenic world. It was spread in the whole of the East (Syria, Armenia, Arabia, Persia, Ethiopia, Turkey, India, Malaysia, Java and others) and the West (Italy, France, Spain, Germany, Bohemia and others). It caused the flourish of a rich literature with Alexander as its theme. In some cases poems about Alexander reached 30,000 verses. So Alexander became a universal hero whom every people imagined him in their own way. Constantine Kavafi, a famous contemporary Greek poet from Alexandria, inspired by Alexander’s promotion of Hellenism created a poem entitled “In 200 BC”. In that poem he demonstrates his pride as an Alexandrian and at the same time expresses sarcasm towards the Lacedomonians (Spartans) who refused to follow Alexander in his expedition. Amongst other things the poem says: “...And from the magnificent Pan-Hellenic expedition Why bother with the Lacedomonians now! |
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The battle at Issus (333 BC)
